Glossary

Liposoluble vitamin able to protect and detoxify all cells in the body and in particular muscle, blood and nervous tissue cells. It prevents oxidation of certain compounds originating from the diet, in particular unsaturated fatty acids, and thanks to its antioxidant action, prevents formation of free radicals (Cf. oxidation), substances which contribute to cell ageing and degeneration. It is also essential for maintaining fertility and muscle tone. Although extremely rare, a deficiency may cause spontaneous abortion and muscle lesions. Vitamin E and other substances with similar functions are found above all in leaf vegetables (lettuce, spinach, chard), cereal germ, oily nuts (walnuts, peanuts, etc.) and oils. Its content may be reduced by exposure to light and air, but it is not altered by cooking and chilling.

RECOMMENDED LEVELS

The recommended value is about 10 mg/day, explained by the fact that vitamin E is carried by the PUFAs and intake should be at the rate of 0.4 mg for every g PUFA consumed.
According to the Italian Recommended Levels of Energy and Nutrient Intake (LARN), PUFAs should be consumed in amounts of about 25 g/day, hence the level of about 10 mg/day of vitamin E.

However, the minimum level should not drop below 3 mg/day for women and 4 mg/day for men.

Cf. Fatty acids.

Substances able to stabilise mixtures consisting of otherwise non-miscible elements such as oil and water. Emulsifiers are added as additives to maintain emulsions over time (mayonnaise, ice cream, fats for bread making) and guarantee the homogeneity of certain ingredients such as the creams present in snack bars and chocolate. Emulsifiers include lecithins, fatty acid salts and mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids. On the label, they are indicated either in full or with the letter E followed by three numbers between 470 and 483.

The capacity of the body to perform work using calories produced from foods or, in their absence, coming from the reserves of sugars, fats and proteins present in the body. The quantity of calories necessary each day to carry out those activities performed at rest (functioning of the heart, lungs, glands, etc.) is known as the Basal Calorie Requirement (Cf. Basal metabolism) and is influenced by numerous factors: A. Age, in children and adolescents, the energy requirement is much higher as it allows for growth processes. It decreases in adults and drops progressively after 50-60 years, falling to 30% from 70 onwards. B. Climate, at 20°C, energy requirements are constant. In cold climates they diminish, while in hot climates they increase, sometimes considerably to allow for heat regulation, in other words, maintenance of body heat. C. Composition of the food, a protein rich meal increases the energy requirement by up to 30% as these substances accelerate cell metabolism. Physical exercise also increases the energy requirement, defined as the exercise energy requirement, becoming higher in proportion to the work performed. An adult consumes 0.9 calories/minute while asleep, 1.7 calories/minute during office work, 3.5 calories/minute during housework and up to 7-8 calories/minute during intensive prolonged sports activities. If the energy intake is insufficient and continues over a period of time, the body burns the deposited fat and transforms it into energy. Vice versa, when the energy intake is excessive, excess energy is stored in the form of adipose tissue.

The energy requirement is defined as the quantity of food-derived energy required to compensate for the energy consumed by individuals maintaining a level of physical activity sufficient to take an active part in social and economic life and with a body build compatible with a good state of health in the long term. In the case of children or pregnant and nursing women, the requirement must include the amount of energy necessary to support deposition of new tissues or secretion of milk. In the elderly, the requirement reduces with age starting from 50 to 60 years, due largely to the reduction in physical activity.Generally, the energy requirement is calculated by measuring or predicting the individual’s Basal Metabolism (BM) and considering the calorie cost of the various physical activities as well as his or her use of time. The individual energy requirement is also associated with gender, age, weight and job.

1)Indication of a range of energy requirement values for children and adolescents for both sexes and age groups. (source: LARN)

2)Indication of a range of energy requirement values for adults (18-60) in relation to weight and job. (source: LARN)

MEN
Weight (kg)	Requirement (Kcal/day)
	Light activity	Moderate activity	Heavy activity
55 – 65 65 – 75 75 – 85	2140 – 2360 2300 – 2575 2465 – 2790	2575 – 2840 2770 – 3100 2970 – 3360	3045 – 3360 3280 – 3670 3510 – 3975

WOMEN
Weight (kg)	Requirement (Kcal/day)
	Light activity	Moderate activity	Heavy activity
40 – 50 50 – 60 60 – 70	1540 – 1795 1750 – 1960 1920 – 2165	1690 – 1970 1920 – 2150 2105 – 2380	1875 – 2185 2130 – 2385 2340 – 2640

3)Indication of a range of energy requirement values for the elderly (source: LARN)

	MEN		WOMEN
Age (years)	Requirement (Kcal/day)
	With recommended level of physical activity	Without recommended level of physical activity	With recommended level of physical activity	Without recommended level of physical activity
60 – 74 > 75	2030 – 2435 1925 – 2210	1885 – 2260 1695 – 1945	1753 – 2040 1680 – 2000	1600 – 1880 1475 – 1755

NB: These ranges are purely indicative. It is, in fact, always preferable to calculate the energy requirements of individuals or similar population groups on the basis of precise information on weight (real or recommended) and activity profile.

Proteins acting as catalysers for critical chemical and metabolic reactions, enabling them to take place and accelerating them. They are extremely specific and act only on the substrate they are intended for. Often they act together with a non-protein co-factor known as a coenzyme which may be a metal or a vitamin. While the reactions are taking place, they are not transformed, remaining unmodified and able to catalyse new reactions. The efficacy of enzymes depends on a number of chemical and physical parameters, such as the acidity of the environment and temperature (in common with all proteins, they are denatured by high temperatures). Food discoloration, certain forms of oxidation and fermentation, the loss of texture of plants, rigor mortis in meat and numerous other positive and negative transformations of food are caused by enzyme processes.